Some were hollow iron projectiles and filled with black powder. The same powder used to fire cannons and muskets. Time delay fuses were attached. These were ignited by the canon firing, burned a predetermined time, and exploded the powder.
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The main cannon of the Civil War was the 10-pound muzzle loading Parrot Rifle. However, there were many older types of cannon still in use at the beginning of the Civil War. These ranged from Revolutionary-era "grasshoppers" (small 3-pounders made of brass) up to cast iron mortars and cannon.
The primary cannon used was the French made M1857 12 Pounder "Napoleon"
Ships that were plated with iron. Famous ones are the Merrimack and the Monitor. The invention of the ironclad scared Europe, seeing they did not have that technology. Cannon balls just bounced off of the ships. The south came up with these first, but then the North made a better version with 40+ patented items, including the rotating turret.
No. Never heard of such. Gold and Lead have a lot of the same metal properties so it could work. They both have about same density. It would be very expensive ammunition. I don't think there were Brass cannon balls either. The guns were made of brass but not the balls.