Who were some famous African American script writers?

Who invented Converse?

i love coverse!!! TAKE YOUR TIME AND READ!!!!1908 to PresentMore than shoes, Converse is a story of legends, heroes and innovators tied together by the love of sport. It's a script that spans nearly a hundred years - the ultimate highlight reel.When Marquis M. Converse opened the doors of the Converse Rubber Shoe Company in Malden, Mass., in 1908, he had no idea that he was really manufacturing an American icon. Throughout the 20th century, Converse delivered a consistent procession of standout sports performance footwear including the shoe that revolutionized basketball and would later would later become a favorite worldwide, the Chuck Taylor® All Star®.The legacy of Converse - the true soul of American sports - continues to unfold, in sport and in life, in the 21st century.The Early Years: 1908 - 1920A young Marquis M. Converse starts the company with winterized footwear for men, women and children. Converse canvas shoes for the sport of tennis soon follow. And, during basketball's formative years, Converse invents the All Star® basketball shoe, helping to spark a century-long American love affair with the sport.1908 - Marquis Mills Converse opens the doors of the Converse Rubber Shoe Company1910 - Converse produces 4,000 shoes daily1915 - Converse canvas tennis shoe business climbs, doubling by 19181917 - World's first performance basketball sneaker debuts - the Converse All Star1918 - Charles H. "Chuck" Taylor, an All American high school player who would later suit up with the original Celtics, Buffalo Germans and Akron Firestones, puts on his first pair of All Star shoesRoaring 1920sThe run on Converse performance tennis shoes proliferates. Meanwhile, backed by Converse, Chuck Taylor, the game's most inspired, credible and tireless advocate, hits the road to introduce legions of Americans to the sport. Along the way, Converse makes basketball shoes for the nation's most famous barnstorming teams who are recognized for bringing to the game an improvisational style that showcased speed, competitive play and team spirit. Before there was an "old school," Converse, and the game's pioneers who played in our shoes, set the benchmarks against which others aspired to reach. Converse is The First School™, the true owners of the soul of the game.1921 - Chuck Taylor joins Converse, improves the All Star shoe's traction and ankle support, becomes America's first player endorser, and publishes the first of 60 years of the Converse Basketball Yearbook1922 - Chuck Taylor teaches the first basketball clinic at North Carolina State University1923 - THE pinnacle moment in the history of Converse: Converse adds Chuck Taylor's signature to the All Star® patch, giving birth to what would become an American icon. Chuck Taylor, the "Ambassador of Basketball," begins his 35-year "evangelist tour" across America to introduce and teach the game1923 - Converse customizes shoes for the New York Renaissance, the game's first all African American pro basketball team. Specializing in teamwork, the "Rens" leverage the fast-pivoting All Star shoes to pioneer a whole new level of play, compiling an unprecedented record of 2,588 wins and only 539 losses, and becoming one of the game's most successful teams of all time1930s - 1950sThe nation's interest in basketball surges. Converse and basketball are synonymous as the Chuck Taylor® All Star® becomes standard issue on pro, collegiate and high school courts nationwide. Concurrently, Converse's record-breaking war manufacturing effort earns it the United States' "E for Excellence" distinction. Hollywood helps the wildly popular Chuck Taylor All Star (a.k.a. "Chucks", "Cons", "Connies") transcend the sport to become deeply entrenched in popular American culture, like jeans and soda.1935 - World famous champion badminton player Jack Purcell designs an innovative and durable performance court shoe, with its telltale toe Smile™, that changed the game and soon became a staple of early Hollywood and boarding school "bad boys"1935 - Chuck Taylor invents the modern-day basketball - the first "stitchless" leather basketball to improve the sport through a more true bounce1936 - Basketball is played for the first time as an official Olympic sport. The U.S team, which wore Chuck Taylor All Star shoes, defeats Canada 19-8 on a clay court for the gold medal1936 - The pioneering fan favorite All American Redheads, an all-women exhibition team with the flair of some of New York's most famous barnstorming teams, play their first game in Converse1939 - The first NCAA championship basketball tournament is held with both teams playing in Converse All Star shoes1942 - Fully committed to support the war effort, Converse shifts its sports production and designs the innovative A6 Flying Boot, which the entire U.S. Army Air Corps wears1946 - Holcombe Rucker launches the famed Rucker Professional Summer Basketball Tourney in Harlem. Converse All Star shoes are there at the beginning of this pinnacle competition that today pits the best "street" players against the pros1949 - The Basketball Association of America and the National League merge to become the NBA. Virtually all pro players are wearing Chuck Taylor All Star shoes at the time1955-56 - 100,000,000 spectators flock to high school, college and pro basketball games, at which time Chucks are the #1 basketball shoe in America1957 - At seven years old, a young basketball player named Julius Erving pleads with his mom to buy him his first pair of Chuck Taylor® All Star® shoes for $3.95. Wearing Converse en route to basketball history, Julius, better known as "Dr. J," creates a whole new style of above-the-rim play, ushering in today's modern game1960s - 1970sConverse ushers in a parade of new athletic performance footwear, apparel and accessories for basketball, tennis, football, track, wrestling and other sports. Elite athletes line up to lace up in Converse. Hollywood's love affair with Converse continues to bloom. The line between the worlds of sports and fashion blur. Converse responds, adds color, plus leather performance shoes to its arsenal.1962 - The most points ever scored in a single NBA game by one player, 100 points to be precise, is recorded. The record, established in Chuck Taylor All Star shoes, has never been broken1962 - Converse develops the low cut version of its All Star, called an "oxford," which soon became the shoe of choice for pro players and started a new and relaxed west coast lifestyle statement that quickly spread eastward1966 - Converse adds seven new colors to the Chuck Taylor All Star line to coordinate with team uniforms1968 - Chuck Taylor, for his lifelong devotion to advancing the sport, earns a spot in the Naismith Basketball Hall of Fame1972 - In the most controversial game in international basketball history, the U.S. loses its first ever Olympic contest that ended a 63-game Olympic winning streak and a string of seven consecutive Olympic gold medals - Converse remains the shoe of choice1974 - Converse debuts the "One Star," a low-cut performance shoe for basketball, which is later adopted by surfers and skaters as a retro, alternative lifestyle look1974 - In every major college and junior college tournament this year, eight out of ten players wear Converse All Star shoes1976 - Julius Erving endorses Converse, putting his stamp on the company's revolutionary Pro Leather, which would become known as "The Dr. J"1980s - 1990sConverse invests in athletic biomechanics research, leading to technical advances and a new breed of performance footwear. The roster of legendary male and female athletes - from court and field - who endorse and perform in Converse, continues to grow. Meanwhile, Chuck Taylor All Star shoes continue to be a mainstay in American culture.1981 - Converse develops one of the industry's first biomechanics labs1982 - NCAA championship team is won in White/Carolina Pro Leathers, earning the shoe the nickname, the "Buzzer Beater"1983 - Dr. J, wearing Converse- his footwear of choice throughout his entire career-leads his team to the win the NBA Championship1984 - Converse is the Official Sponsor of the 1984 Olympic Games. The U.S. men's basketball team wins gold while wearing Converse. By this time, Converse shoes had appeared in final medal rounds at every Olympic competition since 19361985 - Converse's biomechanics lab delivers the industry's first high-tech midsole cushioning systems, energy return technology and motion control devices1986 - Converse unveils The Weapon™ with its instant hit, "Choose Your Weapons" ad campaign featuring two of pro basketball's best squaring off in Converse1991 - NBA's Rookie of the Year stars as "Grandma-Ma" - a Converse-invented character that quickly gains pop-culture status1992 - Converse introduces state-of-the-art REACT® custom-fit technology, increasing basketball shoe cushioning, stability and support1996 - For the first time since the 1970s, the Chuck Taylor® All Star® patch appears on a performance leather basketball shoe - the All-Star 2000, whose DNA is drawn directly from the original All Star, immediately resonates selling more 1,000,000 pairs2000s...Converse enters the new millennium inspired by the innovative drive of its founding fathers and redoubles its commitment to remember, learn from and build upon its proven past, with a keen eye on developing performance footwear for the future.2002 - By this time, more than 750 million pairs of Chuck Taylor All Star shoes have been sold in 144 countries since its 1923 debut2002 - Converse signs player-endorsers Rodney Rogers, who earned NBA's Sixth Man award 1999-2000, Ron Mercer, who was named to the 1997-1998 NBA All Star Rookie Team, Andre Miller, who became one of the youngest assist leaders in the game, and Jeryl Sasser, whose versatility, tireless defense and amazing rebounding earned him a spot in the first round of the 2001 NBA Draft2003 - The company unveils Converse Re-Issue™, a collection of performance footwear drawn from the innovative manufacturer's 20th century archive, presented in their original form and resurrected with new color and added comfortconverse rocks!

What are the olmecs known for?

OlmecFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopediaJump to: navigation, searchMonument 6, San Lorenzo Tenochtitlan"The Wrestler", an Olmec era statuette, 1200 - 800 BC.Monument 1, one of the four Olmec colossal heads at La Venta. This one is nearly 3 metres (9 ft) tall.The Olmec were a Pre-Columbian civilization living in the tropical lowlands of south-central Mexico, near the modern-day cities of Veracruz and Tabasco.The Olmec flourished during Mesoamerica's Formative period, dating roughly from as early as 1500 BC to about 400 BC. Pre-Olmec cultures had flourished in the area since about 2500 BC, but by 1600-1500 BC Early Olmec culture had emerged centered around the San Lorenzo Tenochtitlán site near the coast in southeast Veracruz.[1] They were the first Mesoamerican civilization and laid many of the foundations for the civilizations that followed.[2] Among other "firsts", there is evidence that the Olmec practiced ritual bloodletting and played the Mesoamerican ballgame, hallmarks of nearly all subsequent Mesoamerican societies.The most familiar aspect of the Olmecs is their artwork, particularly the aptly-named colossal heads.[3] In fact, the Olmec civilization was first defined through artifacts purchased on the pre-Columbian art market in the late 19th century and early 20th century. Olmec artworks are considered among ancient America's most striking artwork.[4]Contents[hide] 1 Overview 1.1 Origins1.2 La Venta1.3 Decline2 Art 2.1 Colossal heads2.2 Jade face masks3 Beyond the heartland4 Notable innovations 4.1 Bloodletting and sacrifice speculations4.2 Writing4.3 Mesoamerican Long Count calendar and invention of the zero concept4.4 Mesoamerican ballgame5 Daily life 5.1 Ethnicity and language5.2 Religion and mythology5.3 Social and political organization5.4 Trade5.5 Village life and diet6 History of archaeological research 6.1 Etymology7 Alternative origin speculations8 Gallery9 See also10 Footnotes11 References12 External linksOverviewThe Olmec heartland where the Olmecs reigned from 1400 - 400 BC. The "Olmec heartland" is an archaeological term used to describe an area in the Gulf lowlands that is generally considered the birthplace of the Olmec culture. This area is characterized by swampy lowlands punctuated by low hills, ridges, and volcanoes. The Tuxtlas Mountains rise sharply in the north, along the Gulf of Mexico's Bay of Campeche. Here the Olmecs constructed permanent city-temple complexes at San Lorenzo Tenochtitlán, La Venta, Tres Zapotes, and Laguna de los Cerros. In this region, the first Mesoamerican civilization would emerge and reign from c.1400-400 BC.[5]OriginsMain article: San Lorenzo Tenochtitlán What we today call Olmec first appears within the city of San Lorenzo Tenochtitlán, where distinctive Olmec features appear around 1400 BC. The rise of civilization here was assisted by the local ecology of well-watered alluvial soil, as well as by the transportation network that the Coatzacoalcos River basin provided. This environment may be compared to that of other ancient centers of civilization: the Nile, Indus, and Yellow River valleys, and Mesopotamia. This highly productive environment encouraged a densely concentrated population which in turn triggered the rise of an elite class.[6] It was this elite class that provided the social basis for the production of the symbolic and sophisticated luxury artifacts that define Olmec culture.[7] Many of these luxury artifacts, such as jade, obsidian and magnetite, came from distant locations and suggest that early Olmec elites had access to an extensive trading network in Mesoamerica. The source of the most valued jade, for example, is found in the Motagua River valley in eastern Guatemala,[8] and Olmec obsidian has been traced to sources in the Guatemala highlands, such as El Chayal and San Martín Jilotepeque, or in Puebla,[9] distances ranging from 200 to 400 km away (120 - 250 miles away) respectively.[10]La VentaMain article: La Venta The first Olmec center, San Lorenzo, was all but abandoned around 900 BC at about the same time that La Venta rose to prominence.[11] A wholesale destruction of many San Lorenzo monuments also occurred circa 950 BC, which may point to an internal uprising or, less likely, an invasion.[12] The latest thinking, however, is that environmental changes may have been responsible for this shift in Olmec centers, with certain important rivers changing course.[13]In any case, following the decline of San Lorenzo, La Venta became the most prominent Olmec center, lasting from 900 BC until its abandonment around 400 BC.[14] La Venta sustained the Olmec cultural traditions, but with spectacular displays of power and wealth. The Great Pyramid was the largest Mesoamerican structure of its time. Even today, after 2500 years of erosion, it rises 34 meters above the naturally flat landscape.[15] Buried deep within La Venta, lay opulent, labor-intensive "Offerings" - 1000 tons of smooth serpentine blocks, large mosaic pavements, and at least 48 separate deposits of polished jade celts, pottery, figurines, and hematite mirrors.[16]DeclineIt is not known with any clarity what caused the eventual extinction of the Olmec culture. It is known that between 400 and 350 BC, population in the eastern half of the Olmec heartland dropped precipitously, and the area would remain sparsely inhabited until the 19th century.[17] This depopulation was likely the result of "very serious environmental changes that rendered the region unsuited for large groups of farmers", in particular changes to the riverine environment that the Olmec depended upon for agriculture, for hunting and gathering, and for transportation. Archaeologists propose that these changes were triggered by tectonic upheavals or subsidence, or the silting up of rivers due to agricultural practices.[18] One theory for the considerable population drop during the Terminal Formative period is suggested by Santley and colleagues (Santley et al. 1997) and proposes shifts in settlement location [relocation] due to volcanism instead of extinction. Volcanic eruptions during the Early, Late and Terminal Formative periods would have blanketed the lands and forced the Olmecs to move their settlements.[19]Whatever the cause, within a few hundred years of the abandonment of the last Olmec cities, successor cultures had become firmly established. The Tres Zapotes site, on the western edge of the Olmec heartland, continued to be occupied well past 400 BC, but without the hallmarks of the Olmec culture. This post-Olmec culture, often labeled Epi-Olmec, has features similar to those found at Izapa, some 330 miles (550 km) to the southeast.[20]ArtFish Vessel, 12th-9th century BC. Height: 6.5 inches (16.5 cm).Olmec white ware "Hollow baby" figurine - probably produced in southern Puebla.The Olmec culture was first defined as an art style, and this continues to be the hallmark of the culture.[21] Wrought in a large number of media - jade, clay, basalt, and greenstone among others - much Olmec art, such as the Wrestler, is surprisingly naturalistic. Other art, however, reveals fantastic anthropomorphic creatures, often highly stylized, using an iconography reflective of a religious meaning.[22] Common motifs include downturned mouths and a cleft head, both of which are seen in representations of were-jaguars.[21]In addition to human and human-like subjects, Olmec artisans were adept at animal portrayals, for example, the fish vessel to the right or the bird vessel in the gallery below.While Olmec figurines are found abundantly in sites throughout the Formative Period, it is the stone monuments such as the colossal heads that are the most recognizable feature of Olmec culture.[23] These monuments can be divided into four classes:[24]Colossal headsRectangular "altars" (more likely thrones) such as Altar 5 shown below.Free-standing in-the-round sculpture, such as the twins from El Azuzul or San Martin Pajapan Monument 1.Stelae, such as La Venta Monument 19 above. The stelae form was generally introduced later than the colossal heads, altars, or free-standing sculptures. Over time stelae moved from simple representation of figures, such as Monument 19 or La Venta Stela 1, toward representations of historical events, particularly acts legitimizing rulers. This trend would culminate in post-Olmec monuments such as La Mojarra Stela 1, which combines images of rulers with script and calendar dates.[25]Colossal headsThe most recognized aspect of the Olmec civilization are the enormous helmeted heads.[26] As no known pre-Columbian text explains them, these impressive monuments have been the subject of much speculation. Once theorized to be ballplayers, it is now generally accepted that these heads are portraits of rulers, perhaps dressed as ballplayers.[27] Infused with individuality, no two heads are alike and the helmet-like headdresses are adorned with distinctive elements, suggesting to some personal or group symbols.[28] There have been 17 colossal heads unearthed to date.[29]SiteCountDesignationsSan Lorenzo10Colossal Heads 1 through 10La Venta4Monuments 1 through 4Tres Zapotes2Monuments A & QRancho la Cobata1Monument 1The heads range in size from the Rancho La Cobata head, at 3.4 m high, to the pair at Tres Zapotes, at 1.47 m. It has been calculated that the largest heads weigh between 25 and 55 short tons (50 t).[30]The heads were carved from single blocks or boulders of volcanic basalt, found in the Tuxtlas Mountains. The Tres Zapotes heads, for example, were sculpted from basalt found at the summit of Cerro el Vigía, at the western end of the Tuxtlas. The San Lorenzo and La Venta heads, on the other hand, were likely carved from the basalt of Cerro Cintepec, on the southeastern side,[31] perhaps at the nearby Llano del Jicaro workshop, and dragged or floated to their final destination dozens of miles away.[32] It has been estimated that moving a colossal head required the efforts of 1,500 people for three to four months.[10] "Olmec-style" face mask in jadeSome of the heads, and many other monuments, have been variously mutilated, buried and disinterred, reset in new locations and/or reburied. It is known that some monuments, and at least two heads, were recycled or recarved, but it is not known whether this was simply due to the scarcity of stone or whether these actions had ritual or other connotations. It is also suspected that some mutilation had significance beyond mere destruction, but some scholars still do not rule out internal conflicts or, less likely, invasion as a factor.[33]The flat-faced, thick-lipped characteristics of the heads have caused some debate due to their apparent resemblance to African facial characteristics. Based on this comparison, some have insisted that the Olmecs were Africans who had emigrated to the New World.[34] However, claims of pre-Columbian contacts with Africa are rejected by the vast majority of archeologists and other Mesoamerican scholars.[35] Explanations for the facial features of the colossal heads include the possibility that the heads were carved in this manner due to the shallow space allowed on the basalt boulders. Others note that in addition to the broad noses and thick lips, the eyes of the heads have the Asian epicanthic fold, and that all these characteristics can still be found in modern Mesoamerican Indians. To support this, in the 1940s artist/art historian Miguel Covarrubias published a series of photos of Olmec artworks and of the faces of modern Mexican Indians with very similar facial characteristics.[36] In addition, the African origin hypothesis assumes that Olmec carving was intended to be realistic, an assumption that is hard to justify given the full corpus of representation in Olmec carving.[37] Ivan van Sertima also claimed that the seven braids on the Tres Zapotes head was an Ethiopian hair style. He offered no evidence that this was an Ethiopian hair style at the appropriate time and the Egyptologist Frank Yurco has said that Olmec braids do not resemble Egyptian or Nubian braids.[38]Jade face masksAnother type of artifact is much smaller; hardstone carvings in jade of a face in a mask form. Curators and scholars refer to "Olmec-style" face masks as despite being Olmec in style, to date no example has been recovered in an archaeologically controlled Olmec context. However they have been recovered from sites of other cultures, including one deliberately deposited in the ceremonial precinct of Tenochtitlan (Mexico City), which would presumably have been about 2,000 years old when the Aztecs buried it, suggesting these were valued and collected as Roman antiquities were in Europe.[39] Beyond the heartlandMain article: Olmec influences on Mesoamerican cultures The major Formative Period (Pre-Classic Era) sites in present-day Mexico which show Olmec influences in the archaeological record.Olmec-style artifacts, designs, figurines, monuments and iconography have been found in the archaeological records of sites hundreds of kilometres outside the Olmec heartland. These sites include:[40]Tlatilco and Tlapacoya, major centers of the Tlatilco culture in the Valley of Mexico, where artifacts include hollow baby-face motif figurines and Olmec designs on ceramics.Chalcatzingo, in Valley of Morelos, which features Olmec-style monumental art and rock art with Olmec-style figures.Teopantecuanitlan, in Guerrero, which features Olmec-style monumental art as well as city plans with distinctive Olmec features.Other sites showing probable Olmec influence include San Bartolo, Takalik Abaj and La Democracia in Guatemala and Zazacatla in Morelos. The Juxtlahuaca and Oxtotitlan cave paintings feature Olmec designs and motifs.[41]Many theories have been advanced to account for the occurrence of Olmec influence far outside the heartland, including long-range trade by Olmec merchants, Olmec colonization of other regions, Olmec artisans travelling to other cities, conscious imitation of Olmec artistic styles by developing towns - some even suggest the prospect of Olmec military domination or that the Olmec iconography was actually developed outside the heartland.[42]The generally accepted, but by no means unanimous, interpretation is that the Olmec-style artifacts, in all sizes, became associated with elite status and were adopted by non-Olmec Formative Period chieftains in an effort to bolster their status.[43]Notable innovationsIn addition to their influence with contemporaneous Mesoamerican cultures, as the first civilization in Mesoamerica, the Olmecs are credited, or speculatively credited, with many "firsts", including the bloodletting and perhaps human sacrifice, writing and epigraphy, and the invention of zero and the Mesoamerican calendar, and the Mesoamerican ballgame, as well as perhaps the compass.[44] Some researchers, including artist and art historian Miguel Covarrubias, even postulate that the Olmecs formulated the forerunners of many of the later Mesoamerican deities.[45] Bloodletting and sacrifice speculationsAltar 5 from La Venta. The inert were-jaguar baby held by the central figure is seen by some as an indication of child sacrifice. In contrast, its sides show bas-reliefs of humans holding quite lively were-jaguar babies. Although there is no explicit representation of Olmec bloodletting in the archaeological record,[46] there is nonetheless a strong case that the Olmecs ritually practiced it. Numerous natural and ceramic stingray spikes and maguey thorns, for example, have been found at Olmec sites,[47] and certain artifacts have been identified as bloodletters (see this Commons photo).[48]The argument that the Olmecs instituted human sacrifice is significantly more speculative. No Olmec or Olmec-influenced sacrificial artifacts have yet been discovered and there is no Olmec or Olmec-influenced artwork that unambiguously shows sacrificial victims (similar, for example, to the danzantefigures of Monte Albán) or scenes of human sacrifice (such as can be seen in the famous ballcourt mural from El Tajin).[49]However, at the El Manatí site, disarticulated skulls and femurs as well as complete skeletons of newborn or unborn children have been discovered amidst the other offerings, leading to speculation concerning infant sacrifice. It is not yet known, though, how the infants met their deaths.[50] Some authors have also associated infant sacrifice with Olmec ritual art showing limp were-jaguar babies, most famously in La Venta's Altar 5 (on the right) or Las Limas figure.[51] Any definitive answer will need to await further findings.WritingSee also: Cascajal block The Olmec may have been the first civilization in the Western Hemisphere to develop a writing system. Symbols found in 2002 and 2006 date to 650 BC[52] and 900 BC[53] respectively, preceding the oldest Zapotec writing dated to about 500 BC.[54][55]The 2002 find at the San Andrés site shows a bird, speech scrolls, and glyphs that are similar to the later Mayan hieroglyphs.[56] Known as the Cascajal Block, the 2006 find from a site near San Lorenzo, shows a set of 62 symbols, 28 of which are unique, carved on a serpentine block. A large number of prominent archaeologists have hailed this find as the "earliest pre-Columbian writing".[57] Others are skeptical because of the stone's singularity, the fact that it had been removed from any archaeological context, and because it bears no apparent resemblance to any other Mesoamerican writing system.[58]There are also well-documented later hieroglyphs known as "Epi-Olmec", and while there are some who believe that Epi-Olmec may represent a transitional script between an earlier Olmec writing system and Mayan writing, the matter remains unsettled.Mesoamerican Long Count calendar and invention of the zero conceptThe back of Stela C from Tres ZapotesThis is the second oldest Long Count date yet discovered. The numerals 7.16.6.16.18 translate to September 3, 32 BC (Julian). The glyphs surrounding the date are one of the few surviving examples of Epi-Olmec script.[59]See also: History of zeroThe Long Count calendar used by many subsequent Mesoamerican civilizations, as well as the concept of zero, may have been devised by the Olmecs. Because the six artifacts with the earliest Long Count calendar dates were all discovered outside the immediate Maya homeland, it is likely that this calendar predated the Maya and was possibly the invention of the Olmecs. Indeed, three of these six artifacts were found within the Olmec heartland. But an argument against an Olmec origin is the fact that the Olmec civilization had ended by the 4th century BC, several centuries before the earliest known Long Count date artifact.[60]The Long Count calendar required the use of zero as a place-holder within its vigesimal (base-20) positional numeral system. A shell glyph - - was used as a zero symbol for these Long Count dates, the second oldest of which, on Stela C at Tres Zapotes, has a date of 32 BC. This is one of the earliest uses of the zero concept in history.[61]Mesoamerican ballgameThe Olmec, whose name means "rubber people" in the Nahuatl language of the Aztecs,[62] are strong candidates for originating the Mesoamerican ballgame so prevalent among later cultures of the region and used for recreational and religious purposes.[63] A dozen rubber balls dating to 1600 BC or earlier have been found in El Manatí, an Olmec sacrificial bog 10 kilometres (6.2 mi) east of San Lorenzo Tenochtitlan.[64] These balls predate the earliest ballcourt yet discovered at Paso de la Amada, circa 1400 BC, although there is no certainty that they were used in the ballgame.[65] Daily lifeEthnicity and languageWhile the actual ethno-linguistic affiliation of the Olmec remains unknown, various hypotheses have been put forward. For example, in 1968 Michael D. Coe speculated that the Olmec were Mayan predecessors.[66] In 1976 linguists Lyle Campbell and Terrence Kaufman published a paper in which they argued a core number of loanwords had apparently spread from a Mixe-Zoquean language into many other Mesoamerican languages.[67] Campbell and Kaufman proposed that the presence of these core loanwords indicated that the Olmec-generally regarded as the first "highly civilized" Mesoamerican society-spoke a language ancestral to Mixe-Zoquean. The spread of this vocabulary particular to their culture accompanied the diffusion of other Olmec cultural and artistic traits that appears in the archaeological record of other Mesoamerican societies.Mixe-Zoque specialist Søren Wichmann first critiqued this theory on the basis that most of the Mixe-Zoquean loans seemed to originate from the Zoquean branch of the family only. This implied the loanword transmission occurred in the period after the two branches of the language family split, placing the time of the borrowings outside of the Olmec period.[68] However new evidence has pushed back the proposed date for the split of Mixean and Zoquean languages to a period within the Olmec era.[69] Based on this dating, the architectural and archaeological patterns and the particulars of the vocabulary loaned to other Mesoamerican languages from Mixe-Zoquean, Wichmann now suggests that the Olmecs of San Lorenzo spoke proto-Mixe and the Olmecs of La Venta spoke proto-Zoque.[69]At least the fact that the Mixe-Zoquean languages still are, and are historically known to have been, spoken in an area corresponding roughly to the Olmec heartland, leads most scholars to assume that the Olmec spoke one or more Mixe-Zoquean languages.[70]Religion and mythologyMain article: Olmec religion Las Limas Monument 1, considered an important realisation of Olmec mythology. The youth holds a were-jaguar infant, while four iconic supernaturals are incised on the youth's shoulders and knees.Olmec religious activities were performed by a combination of rulers, full-time priests, and shamans. The rulers seem to have been the most important religious figures, with their links to the Olmec deities or supernaturals providing legitimacy for their rule.[71] There is also considerable evidence for shamans in the Olmec archaeological record, particularly in the so-called "transformation figures".[72]Olmec mythology has left no documents comparable to the Popul Vuh from Maya mythology, and therefore any exposition of Olmec mythology must rely on interpretations of surviving monumental and portable art (such as the Las Limas figure at right), and comparisons with other Mesoamerican mythologies. Olmec art shows that such deities as the Feathered Serpent and a rain supernatural were already in the Mesoamerican pantheon in Olmec times.[73]Social and political organizationLittle is directly known about the societal or political structure of Olmec society. Although it is assumed by most researchers that the colossal heads and several other sculptures represent rulers, nothing has been found like the Maya stelae (see drawing) which name specific rulers and provide the dates of their rule.[74] Instead, archaeologists relied on the data that they had, such as large- and small-scale site surveys. These provided evidence of considerable centralization within the Olmec region, first at San Lorenzo and then at La Venta - no other Olmec sites come close to these in terms of area or in the quantity and quality of architecture and sculpture.[75]This evidence of geographic and demographic centralization leads archaeologists to propose that Olmec society itself was hierarchical, concentrated first at San Lorenzo and then at La Venta, with an elite that was able to use their control over materials such as water and monumental stone to exert command and legitimize their regime.[76]Nonetheless, Olmec society is thought to lack many of the institutions of later civilizations, such as a standing army or priestly caste.[77] And there is no evidence that San Lorenzo or La Venta controlled, even during their heyday, all of the Olmec heartland.[78] There is some doubt, for example, that La Venta controlled even Arroyo Sonso, only some 35 km away.[79] Studies of the Tuxtla Mountain settlements, some 60 km away, indicate that this area was composed of more or less egalitarian communities outside the control of lowland centers.[80]TradeThe wide diffusion of Olmec artifacts and "Olmecoid" iconography throughout much of Mesoamerica indicates the existence of extensive long-distance trade networks. Exotic, prestigious and high-value materials such as greenstone and marine shell were moved in significant quantities across large distances. While the Olmec were not the first in Mesoamerica to organise long-distance exchanges of goods, the Olmec period saw a significant expansion in interregional trade routes, more variety in material goods exchanged and a greater diversity in the sources from which the base materials were obtained.[81] Village life and dietDespite their size, San Lorenzo and La Venta were largely ceremonial centers, and the majority of the Olmec lived in villages similar to present-day villages and hamlets in Tabasco and Veracruz.[82] These villages were located on higher ground and consisted of several scattered houses. A modest temple may have been associated with the larger villages. The individual dwellings would consist of a house, an associated lean-to, and one or more storage pits (similar in function to a root cellar). A nearby garden was used for medicinal and cooking herbs and for smaller crops such as the domesticated sunflower. Fruit trees, such as avocado or cacao, were likely available nearby.Although the river banks were used to plant crops between flooding periods, the Olmecs also likely practiced swidden (or slash-and-burn) agriculture to clear the forests and shrubs, and to provide new fields once the old fields were exhausted.[83] Fields were located outside the village, and were used for maize, beans, squash, manioc, sweet potato, as well as cotton. Based on archaeological studies of two villages in the Tuxtlas Mountains, it is known that maize cultivation became increasingly important to the Olmec over time, although the diet remained fairly diverse.[84]The fruits and vegetables were supplemented with fish, turtle, snake, and mollusks from the nearby rivers, and crabs and shellfish in the coastal areas. Birds were available as food sources, as were game including peccary, opossum, raccoon, rabbit, and in particular deer.[85] Despite the wide range of hunting and fishing available, midden surveys in San Lorenzo have found that the domesticated dog was the single most plentiful source of animal protein.[86]History of archaeological researchThe jade Kunz Axe, first described by George Kunz in 1890. Although shaped like an axe head, with an edge along the bottom, it is unlikely that this artifact was used except in ritual settings. At a height of 11 in (28 cm), it is one of the largest jade objects ever found in Mesoamerica.[87] Olmec culture was unknown to historians until the mid-19th century. In 1869 the Mexican antiquarian traveller José Melgar y Serrano published a description of the first Olmec monument to have been found in situ. This monument - the colossal head now labelled Tres Zapotes Monument A - had been discovered in the late 1850s by a farm worker clearing forested land on a haciendain Veracruz. Hearing about the curious find while travelling through the region, Melgar y Serrano first visited the site in 1862 to see for himself and complete partially exposed sculpture's excavation. His description of the object, published several years later after further visits to the site, represents the earliest documented report of an artifact of what is now known as the Olmec culture.[88]In the latter half of the 19th century, Olmec artifacts such as the Kunz Axe (right) came to light and were subsequently recognized as belonging to a unique artistic tradition.Frans Blom and Oliver La Farge made the first detailed descriptions of La Venta and San Martin Pajapan Monument 1 during their 1925 expedition. However, at this time most archaeologists assumed the Olmec were contemporaneous with the Maya - even Blom and La Farge were, in their own words, "inclined to ascribe them to the Maya culture".[89]Matthew Stirling of the Smithsonian Institution conducted the first detailed scientific excavations of Olmec sites in the 1930s and 1940s. Stirling, along with art historian Miguel Covarrubias, became convinced that the Olmec predated most other known Mesoamerican civilizations.[90]In counterpoint to Stirling, Covarrubias, and Alfonso Caso, however, Mayanists Eric Thompson and Sylvanus Morley argued for Classic-era dates for the Olmec artifacts. The question of Olmec chronology came to a head at a 1942 Tuxtla Gutierrez conference, where Alfonso Caso declared that the Olmecs were the "mother culture" ("cultura madre") of Mesoamerica.[91]Shortly after the conference, radiocarbon dating proved the antiquity of the Olmec civilization, although the "mother culture" question generates much debate even 60 years later.[92]EtymologyThe name "Olmec" means "rubber people" in Nahuatl, the language of the Aztec, and was the Aztec name for the people who lived in the Gulf Lowlands in the 15th and 16th centuries, some 2000 years after the Olmec culture died out. The term "rubber people" refers to the ancient practice, spanning from ancient Olmecs to Aztecs, of extracting latex from Castilla elastica, a rubber tree in the area. The juice of a local vine, Ipomoea alba, was then mixed with this latex to create rubber as early as 1600 BC.[93] Early modern explorers and archaeologists, however, mistakenly applied the name "Olmec" to the rediscovered ruins and artifacts in the heartland decades before it was understood that these were not created by people the Aztecs knew as the "Olmec", but rather a culture that was 2000 years older. Despite the mistaken identity, the name has stuck.[94]It is not known what name the ancient Olmec used for themselves; some later Mesoamerican accounts seem to refer to the ancient Olmec as "Tamoanchan".[95] A contemporary term sometimes used to describe the Olmec culture is tenocelome, meaning "mouth of the jaguar".[96]Alternative origin speculationsMain article: Olmec alternative origin speculations See also: Pre-Columbian Africa-Americas contact theoriesIn part because the Olmecs developed the first Mesoamerican civilization and in part because little is known of the Olmecs (relative, for example, to the Maya or Aztec), a number of Olmec alternative origin speculations have been put forth. Although several of these speculations, particularly the theory that the Olmecs were of African origin popularized by Ivan van Sertima's book They Came Before Columbus, have become well-known within popular culture, they are not considered credible by the vast majority of Mesoamerican researchers.[97]

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